Source: Marketing Authorisation Holder Revision Year: 2022 Publisher: SANOFI WINTHROP INDUSTRIE, 1, rue de la Vierge, Ambarès et Lagrave, 33565 Carbon Blanc cedex, France
Pharmacotherapeutic group: platelet aggregation inhibitors excl. Heparin
ATC Code: B01AC30
Clopidogrel is a prodrug, one of whose metabolites is an inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Clopidogrel must be metabolised by CYP450 enzymes to produce the active metabolite that inhibits platelet aggregation. The active metabolite of clopidogrel selectively inhibits the binding of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to its platelet P2Y12 receptor and the subsequent ADP-mediated activation of the glycoprotein GPIIb/IIIa complex, thereby inhibiting platelet aggregation. Due to the irreversible binding, platelets exposed are affected for the remainder of their lifespan (approximately 7-10 days) and recovery of normal platelet function occurs at a rate consistent with platelet turnover. Platelet aggregation induced by agonists other than ADP is also inhibited by blocking the amplification of platelet activation by released ADP.
Because the active metabolite is formed by CYP450 enzymes, some of which are polymorphic or subject to inhibition by other drugs, not all patients will have adequate platelet inhibition.
Repeated doses of clopidogrel 75 mg per day produced substantial inhibition of ADPinduced platelet aggregation from the first day; this increased progressively and reached steady state between Day 3 and Day 7. At steady state, the average inhibition level observed with a dose of 75 mg per day was between 40% and 60%. Platelet aggregation and bleeding time gradually returned to baseline values, generally within 5 days after treatment was discontinued.
Acetylsalicylic acid inhibits platelet aggregation by irreversible inhibition of prostaglandin cyclo-oxygenase and thus inhibits the generation of thromboxane A2, an inducer of platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction. This effect lasts for the life of the platelet.
Experimental data suggest that ibuprofen may inhibit the effect of low dose aspirin on platelet aggregation when they are dosed concomitantly. In one study, when a single dose of ibuprofen 400 mg was taken within 8 hours before or within 30 minutes after immediate release aspirin dosing (81 mg), a decreased effect of ASA on the formation of thromboxane or platelet aggregation occurred. However, the limitations of these data and the uncertainties regarding extrapolation of ex vivo data to the clinical situation imply that no firm conclusions can be made for regular ibuprofen use, and no clinically relevant effect is considered to be likely for occasional ibuprofen use.
The safety and efficacy of clopidogrel plus ASA have been evaluated in three double-blind studies involving over 61,900 patients: the CURE, CLARITY and COMMIT studies, comparing clopidogrel plus ASA to ASA alone, both treatments given in combination with other standard therapy.
The CURE study included 12,562 patients with non-ST segment elevation acute coronary syndrome (unstable angina or non-Q-wave myocardial infarction), and presenting within 24 hours of onset of the most recent episode of chest pain or symptoms consistent with ischaemia. Patients were required to have either ECG changes compatible with new ischaemia or elevated cardiac enzymes or troponin I or T to at least twice the upper limit of normal. Patients were randomised to clopidogrel (300 mg loading dose followed by 75 mg/day, N=6,259) plus ASA (75-325 mg once daily) or ASA alone (N=6,303), (75-325 mg once daily) and other standard therapies. Patients were treated for up to one year. In CURE, 823 (6.6%) patients received concomitant GPIIb/IIIa receptor antagonist therapy. Heparins were administered in more than 90% of the patients and the relative rate of bleeding between clopidogrel plus ASA and ASA alone was not significantly affected by the concomitant heparin therapy.
The number of patients experiencing the primary endpoint [cardiovascular (CV) death, myocardial infarction (MI), or stroke] was 582 (9.3%) in the clopidogrel plus ASA group and 719 (11.4%) in the ASA group, a 20% relative risk reduction (95% CI of 10%-28%; p=0.00009) for the clopidogrel plus ASA group (17% relative risk reduction when patients were treated conservatively, 29% when they underwent PTCA with or without stent and 10% when they underwent CABG). New cardiovascular events (primary endpoint) were prevented, with relative risk reductions of 22% (CI: 8.6, 33.4), 32% (CI: 12.8, 46.4), 4% (CI: -26.9, 26.7), 6% (CI: -33.5, 34.3) and 14% (CI: -31.6, 44.2), during the 0-1, 1-3, 3-6, 6-9 and 9-12 month study intervals, respectively. Thus, beyond 3 months of treatment, the benefit observed in the clopidogrel plus ASA group was not further increased, whereas the risk of haemorrhage persisted (see section “Special warnings and precautions for use”).
The use of clopidogrel in CURE was associated with a decrease in the need of thrombolytic therapy (RRR = 43.3%; CI: 24.3%, 57.5%) and GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors (RRR = 18.2%; CI: 6.5%, 28.3%).
The number of patients experiencing the co-primary endpoint (CV death, MI, stroke or refractory ischaemia) was 1035 (16.5%) in the clopidogrel plus ASA group and 1187 (18.8%) in the ASA group, a 14% relative risk reduction (95% CI of 6%-21%, p=0.0005) for the clopidogrel plus ASA group. This benefit was mostly driven by the statistically significant reduction in the incidence of MI [287 (4.6%) in the clopidogrel plus ASA group and 363 (5.8%) in the ASA group]. There was no observed effect on the rate of rehospitalisation for unstable angina.
The results obtained in populations with different characteristics (e.g. unstable angina or non-Q-wave MI, low to high risk levels, diabetes, need for revascularisation, age, gender, etc.) were consistent with the results of the primary analysis. The benefits observed with clopidogrel on top of ASA were independent of other acute and long-term cardiovascular therapies (such as heparin/LMWH, GPIIb/IIIa antagonists, lipid lowering drugs, beta blockers, and ACE inhibitors). The efficacy of clopidogrel was observed independently of the dose of ASA (75-325 mg once daily).
In patients with acute ST-segment elevation MI, safety and efficacy of clopidogrel have been evaluated in 2 randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies, CLARITY and COMMIT.
The CLARITY trial included 3,491 patients presenting within 12 hours of the onset of a ST elevation MI and planned for thrombolytic therapy. Patients received clopidogrel (300 mg loading dose, followed by 75 mg/day, n=1752) plus ASA or ASA alone (n=1739), (150 to 325 mg as a loading dose, followed by 75 to 162 mg/day), a fibrinolytic agent and, when appropriate, heparin. The patients were followed for 30 days. The primary endpoint was the occurrence of the composite of an occluded infarct-related artery on the predischarge angiogram, or death or recurrent MI before coronary angiography. For patients who did not undergo angiography, the primary endpoint was death or recurrent myocardial infarction by Day 8 or by hospital discharge. The patient population included 19.7% women and 29.2% patients ≥65 years. A total of 99.7% of patients received fibrinolytics (fibrin-specific: 68.7%, non-fibrin specific: 31.1%), 89.5% heparin, 78.7% beta blockers, 54.7% ACE inhibitors and 63% statins.
Fifteen percent (15.0%) of patients in the clopidogrel plus ASA group and 21.7% in the group treated with ASA alone reached the primary endpoint, representing an absolute reduction of 6.7% and a 36% odds reduction in favor of clopidogrel (95% CI: 24, 47%; p<0.001), mainly related to a reduction in occluded infarct-related arteries. This benefit was consistent across all prespecified subgroups including patients' age and gender, infarct location, and type of fibrinolytic or heparin used.
The 2x2 factorial design COMMIT trial included 45,852 patients presenting within 24 hours of the onset of the symptoms of suspected MI with supporting ECG abnormalities (i.e. ST elevation, ST depression or left bundle-branch block). Patients received clopidogrel (75 mg/day, n=22,961) plus ASA (162 mg/day), or ASA alone (162 mg/day) (n=22,891), for 28 days or until hospital discharge. The co-primary endpoints were death from any cause and the first occurrence of re-infarction, stroke or death. The population included 27.8% women, 58.4% patients ≥60 years (26% ≥70 years) and 54.5% patients who received fibrinolytics.
Clopidogrel plus ASA significantly reduced the relative risk of death from any cause by 7% (p = 0.029), and the relative risk of the combination of re-infarction, stroke or death by 9% (p = 0.002), representing an absolute reduction of 0.5% and 0.9%, respectively. This benefit was consistent across age, gender and with or without fibrinolytics, and was observed as early as 24 hours.
Clopidogrel in combination with ASA is not indicated in STEMI patients undergoing PCI.
Switching from a more potent P2Y12 receptor inhibitor to clopidogrel in association with aspirin after acute phase in ACS has been evaluated in two randomized investigatorsponsored studies (ISS) - TOPIC and TROPICAL ACS – with clinical outcome data.
The clinical benefit provided by the more potent P2Y12 inhibitors, ticagrelor and prasugrel, in their pivotal studies is related to a significant reduction in recurrent ischaemic events (including acute and subacute stent thrombosis (ST), myocardial infarction (MI), and urgent revascularization). Although the ischaemic benefit was consistent throughout the first year, greater reduction in ischaemic recurrence after ACS was observed during the initial days following the treatment initiation. In contrast, post-hoc analyses demonstrated statistically significant increases in the bleeding risk with the more potent P2Y12 inhibitors, occurring predominantly during the maintenance phase, after the first month post ACS. TOPIC and TROPICAL ACS were designed to study how to mitigate the bleeding events while maintaining efficacy.
This randomized, open-label trial included ACS patients requiring PCI. Patients on aspirin and a more potent P2Y12 blocker and without adverse event at one month were assigned to switch to fixed-dose aspirin plus clopidogrel (de-escalated dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT)) or continuation of their drug regimen (unchanged DAPT).
Overall, 645 of 646 patients with STEMI or NSTEMI or unstable angina were analyzed (de-escalated DAPT (n=322); unchanged DAPT (n=323)). Follow-up at one year was performed for 316 patients (98.1%) in the de-escalated DAPT group and 318 patients (98.5%) in the unchanged DAPT group. The median follow-up for both groups was 359 days. The characteristics of the studied cohort were similar in the 2 groups.
The primary outcome, a composite of cardiovascular death, stroke, urgent revascularization, and BARC (Bleeding Academic Research Consortium) bleeding ≥2 at 1 year post ACS, occurred in 43 patients (13.4%) in the de-escalated DAPT group and in 85 patients (26.3%) in the unchanged DAPT group (p<0.01). This statistically significant difference was mainly driven by fewer bleeding events, with no difference reported in ischaemic endpoints (p=0.36), while BARC ≥2 bleeding occurred less frequently in the deescalated DAPT group (4.0%) versus 14.9% in the unchanged DAPT group (p<0.01). Bleeding events defined as all BARC occurred in 30 patients (9.3%) in the de escalated DAPT group and in 76 patients (23.5%) in the unchanged DAPT group (p<0.01).
This randomized, open-label trial included 2,610 biomarker-positive ACS patients after successful PCI. Patients were randomized to receive either prasugrel 5 or 10 mg/d (Days 0-14) (n=1306), or prasugrel 5 or 10 mg/d (Days 0-7) then de-escalated to clopidogrel 75 mg/d (Days 8-14) (n=1304), in combination with ASA (<100 mg/day). At Day 14, platelet function testing (PFT) was performed. The prasugrel only patients were continued on prasugrel for 11.5 months.
The de-escalated patients underwent high platelet reactivity (HPR) testing. If HPR≥46 units, the patients were escalated back to prasugrel 5 or 10 mg/d for 11.5 months; if HPR<46 units, the patients continued on clopidogrel 75 mg/d for 11.5 months. Therefore, the guided de-escalation arm had patients on either prasugrel (40%) or clopidogrel (60%). All patients were continued on aspirin and were followed for one year.
The primary endpoint (the combined incidence of CV death, MI, stroke and BARC bleeding grade ≥2 at 12 months) was met showing non inferiority. Ninety five patients (7%) in the guided de-escalation group and 118 patients (9%) in the control group (p noninferiority=0.0004) had an event. The guided de-escalation did not result in an increased combined risk of ischemic events (2.5% in the de-escalation group vs 3.2% in the control group; p non-inferiority=0.0115), nor in the key secondary endpoint of BARC bleeding ≥2 ((5%) in the de escalation group versus 6% in the control group (p=0.23)). The cumulative incidence of all bleeding events (BARC class 1 to 5) was 9% (114 events) in the guided de escalation group versus 11% (137 events) in the control group (p=0.14).
After single and repeated oral doses of 75 mg per day, clopidogrel is rapidly absorbed. Mean peak plasma levels of unchanged clopidogrel (approximately 2.2-2.5 ng/ml after a single 75 mg oral dose) occurred approximately 45 minutes after dosing. Absorption is at least 50%, based on urinary excretion of clopidogrel metabolites.
Clopidogrel and the main circulating (inactive) metabolite bind reversibly in vitro to human plasma proteins (98% and 94% respectively). The binding is non-saturable in vitro over a wide concentration range.
Clopidogrel is extensively metabolised by the liver. In vitro and in vivo, clopidogrel is metabolised according to two main metabolic pathways: one mediated by esterases and leading to hydrolysis into its inactive carboxylic acid derivative (85% of circulating metabolites), and one mediated by multiple cytochromes P450. Clopidogrel is first metabolised to a 2-oxo-clopidogrel intermediate metabolite. Subsequent metabolism of the 2-oxo-clopidogrel intermediate metabolite results in formation of the active metabolite, a thiol derivative of clopidogrel. The active metabolite is formed mostly by CYP2C19 with contributions from several other CYP enzymes, including CYP3A4, CYP1A2 and CYP2B6. The active thiol metabolite which has been isolated in vitro, binds rapidly and irreversibly to platelet receptors, thus inhibiting platelet aggregation.
The Cmax of the active metabolite is twice as high following a single 300-mg clopidogrel loading dose as it is after four days of 75-mg maintenance dose. Cmax occurs approximately 30 to 60 minutes after dosing.
Following an oral dose of ^14^C-labelled clopidogrel in man, approximately 50% was excreted in the urine and approximately 46% in the faeces in the 120-hour interval after dosing. After a single oral dose of 75mg, clopidogrel has a half-life of approximately 6 hours. The elimination half-life of the main circulating (inactive) metabolite was 8 hours after single and repeated administration.
Several polymorphic CYP450 enzymes activate clopidogrel. CYP2C19 is involved in the formation of both the active metabolite and the 2-oxo-clopidogrel intermediate metabolite. Clopidogrel active metabolite pharmacokinetics and antiplatelet effects, as measured by ex vivo platelet aggregation assays, differ according to CYP2C19 genotype. The CYP2C19*1 allele corresponds to fully functional metabolism while the CYP2C19*2 and CYP2C19*3 alleles correspond to reduced metabolism. The CYP2C19*2 and CYP2C19*3 alleles account for 85% of reduced function alleles in whites and 99% in Asians. Other alleles associated with reduced metabolism include CYP2C19*4, *5, *6, *7, and *8, but these are less frequent in the general population. Published frequencies for the common CYP2C19 phenotypes and genotypes are listed in the table below. Tests are available to determine a patient’s CYP2C19 genotype.
CYP2C19 Phenotype and Genotype Frequency:
| Frequency (%) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| White (n=1356) | Black (n=966) | Chinese (n=573) | |
| Extensive metabolism: CYP2C19*1/*1 | 74 | 66 | 38 |
| Intermediate metabolism: CYP2C19*1/*2 or *1/*3 | 26 | 29 | 50 |
| Poor metabolism: CYP2C19*2/*2, *2/*3 or *3/*3 | 2 | 4 | 14 |
A crossover study in 40 healthy adults, 10 each in the four CYP2C19 metaboliser group (ultrarapid, extensive, intermediate and poor), evaluated pharmacokinetic and antiplatelet responses using 300 mg followed by 150mg/day, each for a total of 5 days (steady state). No substantial differences in active metabolite exposure and mean inhibition of platelet aggregation (IPA) were observed between ultrarapid, extensive and intermediate metabolisers. In poor metabolisers, active metabolite exposure was decreased by 63-71% compared to extensive metabolisers. After the 300/75 mg dose regimen, antiplatelet response were decreased in the poor metabolisers with mean IPA (5 µM ADP) of 24% (24 hours) and 37% (Day 5) as compared to IPA of 39% (24 hours) and 58% (Day 5) in the extensive metabolisers and 37% (24 hours) and 60% (Day 5) in the intermediate metabolisers. When poor metabolisers received the 600 mg/150 mg regimen, active metabolite exposure was greater than with the 300 mg/75 mg regimen. In addition, IPA was 32% (24 hours) and 61% (Day 5), which were greater than in the poor metabolisers receiving the 300 mg/75 mg regimen, and were similar to CYP2C19 metaboliser groups receiving the 300 mg/75 mg regimen. An appropriate dose regimen for this patient population has not been established in clinical outcome trials.
Consistent with the above results, in a meta-analysis including 6 studies of clopidogreltreated subjects at steady state, it was shown that active metabolite exposure was decreased by 28% for intermediate metabolisers, and 72% for poor metabolises while platelet aggregation inhibition (5 µM ADP) was decreased with differences in IPA of 5.9% and 21.4%, respectively, when compared to extensive metabolisers.
The influence of CYP2C19 genotype on clinical outcomes in patients treated with clopidogrel has not been evaluated in prospective, randomised, controlled trials. There have been a number of retrospective analyses, however, to evaluate this effect in patients treated with clopidogrel for whom there are genotyping results: CURE (n=2721), CHARISMA (n=2428), CLARITY-TIMI 28 (n=227), TRITON-TIMI 38 (n=1477), and ACTIVE-A (n=601), as well as a number of published cohort studies.
In TRITON-TIMI 38 and 3 cohort studies (Collet, Sibbing, Giusti) the combined group of patients with either intermediate or poor metaboliser status had a higher rate of cardiovascular events (death, myocardial infarction, and stroke) or stent thrombosis compared to extensive metabolisers.
In CHARISMA and one cohort study (Simon), an increased event rate was observed only in poor metabolisers when compared to extensive metabolisers.
In CURE, CLARITY, ACTIVE-A and one of the cohort studies (Trenk), no increased event rate was observed based on metaboliser status. None of these analyses were adequately sized to detect differences in outcome in poor metabolisers.
The pharmacokinetics of the active metabolite of clopidogrel is not known in these special populations.
After repeated doses of 75 mg clopidogrel per day, in subjects with severe renal disease (creatinine clearance from 5 to 15 ml/min) inhibition of ADP-induced platelet aggregation was lower (25%) than that observed in healthy subjects, however, the prolongation of bleeding time was similar to that seen in healthy subjects receiving 75 mg of clopidogrel per day. In addition, clinical tolerance was good in all patients.
After repeated doses of 75 mg clopidogrel per day for 10 days in patients with severe hepatic impairment, inhibition of ADP-induced platelet aggregation was similar to that observed in healthy subjects. The mean bleeding time prolongation was also similar in the two groups.
The prevalence of CYP2C19 alleles that result in intermediate and poor CYP2C19 metabolism differs according to race/ethnicity (see Pharmacogenetics). From literature, limited data in Asian populations are available to assess the clinical implication of genotyping of this CYP on clinical outcome events.
Following absorption, the ASA in CoPlavix is hydrolyzed to salicylic acid with peak plasma levels of salicylic acid occurring within 1-1.5 hours of dosing, such that plasma levels of ASA are essentially undetectable 1.5-4 hours after dosing.
ASA is poorly bound to plasma proteins and its apparent volume of distribution is low (10 L). Its metabolite, salicylic acid, is highly bound to plasma proteins, but its binding is concentration dependent (nonlinear). At low concentrations (<100 μg/mL), approximately 90% of salicylic acid is bound to albumin. Salicylic acid is widely distributed to all tissues and fluids in the body, including the central nervous system, breast milk, and foetal tissues.
The ASA in CoPlavix is rapidly hydrolyzed in plasma to salicylic acid, with a half-life of 0.3 to 0.4 hours for ASA doses from 75 to 325 mg. Salicylic acid is primarily conjugated in the liver to form salicyluric acid, a phenolic glucuronide, an acyl glucuronide, and a number of minor metabolites. Salicylic acid in CoPlavix has a plasma half-life of approximately 2 hours. Salicylate metabolism is saturable and total body clearance decreases at higher serum concentrations due to the limited ability of the liver to form both salicyluric acid and phenolic glucuronide. Following toxic doses (10-20 g), the plasma half-life may be increased to over 20 hours. At high ASA doses, the elimination of salicylic acid follows zero-order kinetics (i.e., the rate of elimination is constant in relation to plasma concentration), with an apparent half-life of 6 hours or higher. Renal excretion of unchanged drug depends upon urinary pH. As urinary pH rises above 6.5, the renal clearance of free salicylate increases from <5% to >80%. Following therapeutic doses, approximately 10% is found excreted in the urine as salicylic acid, 75% as salicyluric acid, 10% phenolic- and 5% acyl-glucuronides of salicylic acid.
Based on the pharmacokinetic and metabolic characteristics of both compounds, clinically significant PK interactions are unlikely.
During non-clinical studies in rat and baboon, the most frequently observed effects were liver changes. These occurred at doses representing at least 25 times the exposure seen in humans receiving the clinical dose of 75 mg/day and were a consequence of an effect on hepatic metabolising enzymes. No effect on hepatic metabolising enzymes was observed in humans receiving clopidogrel at the therapeutic dose.
At very high doses, a poor gastric tolerability (gastritis, gastric erosions and/or vomiting) of clopidogrel was also reported in rat and baboon.
There was no evidence of carcinogenic effect when clopidogrel was administered for 78 weeks to mice and 104 weeks to rats when given at doses up to 77 mg/kg per day (representing at least 25 times the exposure seen in humans receiving the clinical dose of 75 mg/day).
Clopidogrel has been tested in a range of in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity studies, and showed no genotoxic activity.
Clopidogrel was found to have no effect on the fertility of male and female rats and was not teratogenic in either rats or rabbits. When given to lactating rats, clopidogrel caused a slight delay in the development of the offspring. Specific pharmacokinetic studies performed with radiolabelled clopidogrel clopidogrel have shown that the parent compound or its metabolites are excreted in the milk. Consequently, a direct effect (slight toxicity), or an indirect effect (low palatability) cannot be excluded.
Single-dose studies have shown that the oral toxicity of ASA is low. Repeat-dose toxicity studies have shown that levels up to 200 mg/kg/day are well tolerated in rats; dogs appear to be more sensitive, probably due to the high sensitivity of canines to the ulcerogenic effects of NSAIDs. No genotoxicity or clastogenicity issues of concern have been found with ASA. Although no formal carcinogenicity studies have been performed with ASA, it has been shown that it is not a tumour promoter.
Reproduction toxicity data show that ASA is teratogenic in several laboratory animals. In animals, administration of a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor has been shown to result in increased pre- and post-implantation loss and embryo-foetal lethality. In addition, increased incidences of various malformations, including cardiovascular, have been reported in animals given a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor during the organogenetic period.
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