Lenalidomide

The lenalidomide mechanism of action includes anti-neoplastic, anti-angiogenic, pro-erythropoietic, and immunomodulatory properties. Specifically, lenalidomide inhibits proliferation of certain haematopoietic tumour cells (including MM plasma tumour cells and those with deletions of chromosome 5), enhances T cell and Natural Killer (NK) cell-mediated immunity and increases the number of NK T cells, inhibits angiogenesis by blocking the migration and adhesion of endothelial cells and the formation of microvessels, augments foetal haemoglobin production by CD34+ haematopoietic stem cells, and inhibits production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. TNF-α and IL-6) by monocytes.

In MDS Del (5q), lenalidomide was shown to selectively inhibit the abnormal clone by increasing the apoptosis of Del (5q) cells.

Lenalidomide binds directly to cereblon, a component of a cullin ring E3 ubiquitin ligase enzyme complex that includes deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage-binding protein 1 (DDB1), cullin 4 (CUL4), and regulator of cullins 1 (Roc1). In the presence of lenalidomide, cereblon binds substrate proteins Aiolos and Ikaros which are lymphoid transcriptional factors, leading to their ubiquitination and subsequent degradation resulting in cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects.

Lenalidomide has an asymmetric carbon atom and can therefore exist as the optically active forms S(-) and R(+). Lenalidomide is produced as a racemic mixture. Lenalidomide is generally more soluble in organic solvents but exhibits the greatest solubility in 0.1N HCl buffer.

Absorption

Lenalidomide is rapidly absorbed following oral administration in healthy volunteers, under fasting conditions, with maximum plasma concentrations occurring between 0.5 and 2 hours post-dose. In patients, as well as in healthy volunteers, the maximum concentration (C_max) and area-under-the-concentration time curve (AUC) increase proportionally with increases in dose. Multiple dosing does not cause marked medicinal product accumulation. In plasma, the relative exposures of the S- and R- enantiomers of lenalidomide are approximately 56% and 44%, respectively.

Co-administration with a high-fat and high-calorie meal in healthy volunteers reduces the extent of absorption, resulting in an approximately 20% decrease in area under the concentration versus time curve (AUC) and 50% decrease in C_max in plasma. However, in the main multiple myeloma and myelodysplastic syndromes registration trials where the efficacy and safety were established for lenalidomide, the medicinal product was administered without regard to food intake. Thus, lenalidomide can be administered with or without food.

Population pharmacokinetic analyses indicate that the oral absorption rate of lenalidomide is similar among MM, MDS and MCL patients.

Distribution

In vitro (¹⁴C)-lenalidomide binding to plasma proteins was low with mean plasma protein binding at 23% and 29% in multiple myeloma patients and healthy volunteers, respectively.

Lenalidomide is present in human semen (<0.01% of the dose) after administration of 25 mg/day and the medicinal product is undetectable in semen of a healthy subject 3 days after stopping the substance.

Biotransformation and elimination

Results from human in vitro metabolism studies indicate that lenalidomide is not metabolised by cytochrome P450 enzymes suggesting that administration of lenalidomide with medicinal products that inhibit cytochrome P450 enzymes is not likely to result in metabolic medicinal product interactions in humans. In vitro studies indicate that lenalidomide has no inhibitory effect on CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP3A, or UGT1A1. Therefore, lenalidomide is unlikely to cause any clinically relevant medicinal product interactions when co-administered with substrates of these enzymes.

In vitro studies indicate that lenalidomide is not a substrate of human breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), multidrug resistance protein (MRP) transporters MRP1, MRP2, or MRP3, organic anion transporters (OAT) OAT1 and OAT3, organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B1 (OATP1B1), organic cation transporters (OCT) OCT1 and OCT2, multidrug and toxin extrusion protein (MATE) MATE1, and organic cation transporters novel (OCTN) OCTN1 and OCTN2.

In vitro studies indicate that lenalidomide has no inhibitory effect on human bile salt export pump (BSEP), BCRP, MRP2, OAT1, OAT3, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, and OCT2.

A majority of lenalidomide is eliminated through urinary excretion. The contribution of renal excretion to total clearance in subjects with normal renal function was 90%, with 4% of lenalidomide eliminated in faeces.

Lenalidomide is poorly metabolized as 82% of the dose is excreted unchanged in urine. Hydroxy-lenalidomide and N-acetyl-lenalidomide represent 4.59% and 1.83% of the excreted dose, respectively. The renal clearance of lenalidomide exceeds the glomerular filtration rate and therefore is at least actively secreted to some extent.

At doses of 5 to 25 mg/day, half-life in plasma is approximately 3 hours in healthy volunteers and ranges from 3 to 5 hours in patients with multiple myeloma, myelodysplastic syndromes or mantle cell lymphoma.

Elderly

No dedicated clinical studies have been conducted to evaluate pharmacokinetics of lenalidomide in the elderly. Population pharmacokinetic analyses included patients with ages ranging from 39 to 85 years old and indicate that age does not influence lenalidomide clearance (exposure in plasma). Because elderly patients are more likely to have decreased renal function, care should be taken in dose selection and it would be prudent to monitor renal function.

Renal impairment

The pharmacokinetics of lenalidomide was studied in subjects with renal impairment due to nonmalignant conditions. In this study, two methods were used to classify renal function: the urinary creatinine clearance measured over 24 hours and the creatinine clearance estimated by Cockcroft-Gault formula. The results indicate that as renal function decreases (<50 mL/min), the total lenalidomide clearance decreases proportionally resulting in an increase in AUC. The AUC was increased by approximately 2.5, 4 and 5-fold in subjects with moderate renal impairment, severe renal impairment, and end-stage renal disease, respectively, compared to the group combining subjects with normal renal function and subjects with mild renal impairment. The half-life of lenalidomide increased from approximately 3.5 hours in subjects with creatinine clearance >50 mL/min to more than 9 hours in subjects with reduced renal function <50 mL/min.

However, renal impairment did not alter the oral absorption of lenalidomide. The C_max was similar between healthy subjects and patients with renal impairment. Approximately 30% of the medicinal product in the body was removed during a single 4-hour dialysis session.

Hepatic impairment

Population pharmacokinetic analyses included patients with mild hepatic impairment (N=16, total bilirubin >1 to ≤1.5 x ULN or AST > ULN) and indicate that mild hepatic impairment does not influence lenalidomide clearance (exposure in plasma). There are no data available for patients with moderate to severe hepatic impairment.

Other intrinsic factors

Population pharmacokinetic analyses indicate that body weight (33-135 kg), gender, race and type of haematological malignancy (MM, MDS or MCL) do not have a clinically relevant effect on lenalidomide clearance in adult patients.

An embryofoetal development study has been conducted in monkeys administered lenalidomide at doses from 0.5 and up to 4 mg/kg/day. Findings from this study indicate that lenalidomide produced external malformations including non-patent anus and malformations of upper and lower extremities (bent, shortened, malformed, malrotated and/or absent part of the extremities, oligo and/or polydactyly) in the offspring of female monkeys who received the active substance during pregnancy.

Various visceral effects (discoloration, red foci at different organs, small colourless mass above atrio- ventricular valve, small gall bladder, malformed diaphragm) were also observed in single foetuses.

Lenalidomide has a potential for acute toxicity; minimum lethal doses after oral administration were >2000 mg/kg/day in rodents. Repeated oral administration of 75, 150 and 300 mg/kg/day to rats for up to 26 weeks produced a reversible treatment-related increase in kidney pelvis mineralisation in all 3 doses, most notably in females. The no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) was considered to be less than 75 mg/kg/day, and is approximately 25-fold greater than the human daily exposure based on AUC exposure. Repeated oral administration of 4 and 6 mg/kg/day to monkeys for up to 20 weeks produced mortality and significant toxicity (marked weight loss, reduced red and white blood cell and platelet counts, multiple organ haemorrhage, gastrointestinal tract inflammation, lymphoid, and bone marrow atrophy). Repeated oral administration of 1 and 2 mg/kg/day to monkeys for up to 1 year produced reversible changes in bone marrow cellularity, a slight decrease in myeloid/erythroid cell ratio and thymic atrophy. Mild suppression of white blood cell count was observed at 1 mg/kg/day corresponding to approximately the same human dose based on AUC comparisons.

In vitro (bacterial mutation, human lymphocytes, mouse lymphoma, Syrian Hamster Embryo cell transformation) and in vivo (rat micronucleus) mutagenicity studies revealed no drug related effects at either the gene or chromosomal level. Carcinogenicity studies with lenalidomide have not been conducted.

Developmental toxicity studies were previously conducted in rabbits. In these studies, rabbits were administered 3, 10 and 20 mg/kg/day orally. An absence of the intermediate lobe of the lung was observed at 10 and 20 mg/kg/day with dose dependence and displaced kidneys were observed at 20 mg/kg/day. Although it was observed at maternotoxic levels they may be attributable to a direct effect. Soft tissue and skeletal variations in the foetuses were also observed at 10 and 20 mg/kg/day.